It is time to consider the Royal Society, where the first Secretary was John Wilkins, later to become Bishop of Chester. The heading is a loose translation of the Latin Motto of the Society. Loose it may be but its meaning is abundantly clear. It means, effectively, do not rely on other people, do your own research, publish your findings and accept the criticism of others. In the 17th Century, the rule of Aristotle, namely that “the first principle of all action is leisure” was observed. Leisure was seen, not as relaxation, but a different activity.
This principle, together with the increased freedom of thought accorded by the Reformation, led to a wider interest in scientific subjects. But not all Fellows were scientists. Early members of the Society included the diarist John Evelyn and scientists such as Boyle and the architect Wren. The early years were complicated by the ravages of the Civil War and, during the Protectorate, meetings were abandoned for a while. With The Restoration of the Monarchy, however, the activity was resumed and the monarch, King Charles II allowed the use of the prefix “Royal”. He also became a fellow!
The first meeting of the Society founders, 12 in number, occurred in 1660 when it was resolved to invite a further 40 members. It was reported that 35 accepted and of the latter, 19 were “men of Science”. The remainder included soldiers, statesmen and clergymen. This curious mix of professionals was to continue to the middle of the 19th Century. Thereafter, Fellows would only be elected on merit of scientific research. This move was opposed by some who wished to cling to the mixture of scientific and lay membership. The reason for this lay in another feature of Stuart England which relied heavily upon patronage both in the furtherance of careers and in the matter of funding. There was no central government funding and reliance was placed often upon the financial assistance of affluent, but unqualified, Fellows. Once established, progress was rapid thought not in every detail. There were still remnants of the old thinking. An example was Isaac Newton, who, despite being one of the great intellects of all time, was at the end of his life still working on the transmutation of base metals into gold.
The 18th Century, however saw the emergence of the canal buildings and early steam engines, static and for propulsion. There was much thought given to the production of agricultural machinery. This was a slow process but, with the improved wages which the growing industries offered, this led to a flight from the land which continued well into the 19th Century.
The industrial revolution, the railway system, the advent of gas and much later, electricity, and the advent of the internal combustion engine, were all the ultimate products of the Experimental Philosophy which had its origins in the early meetings of The Royal Society.
There is a downside, of course, and that is in the way in which many of the discoveries have been used to create weapons of war. The internal combustion engine enabled mechanised warfare in the shape of tanks and aircraft and chlorine gas was used on the Western Front in the First World War. The splitting of the atom led, not just to nuclear energy but also to the atom bomb, the slaughter at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the possibility, during the Cold War, of world catastrophe. Dare wer hope that one day, invention will be used for the benefit of the human race and not as a means of its destruction?
In conclusion, we must not forget Ralph Lowndes, Rector of Eccleston (1685-1690) who was a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was not a scientist. He was evicted from his living having refused to sign the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. His excuse was that he had signed the oath in respect of James II who, though in exile, was still alive. Whether that was his true motive or whether he objected on the grounds that England now had a dual monarchy (the only one in its long history), we shall never know!
Peter Jackson July/August 2011